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Design strong quasi-experiments when randomization impossible. Design types: 1. Non-equivalent groups: compare treatment and comparison groups without random assignment. 2. Interrupted time series: multiple observations before and after intervention. 3. Regression discontinuity: treatment assigned b...
Control for confounding variables in observational studies. Design-based controls: 1. Randomization: Random assignment eliminates selection bias. 2. Restriction: limit study to homogeneous group (e.g., only males, specific age range). 3. Matching: match cases and controls on potential confounders (a...